== Models of Learning: Constructivism ==

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=== Overview ===
The constructivist approach is based on the belief that that learning is an active process where learners construct new ideas based on their existing or previous knowledge and understanding.

Constructivism comes in many guises. However, most (if not all) focus on investigative activities by students working within an environment of tools, resources and services, often using modelling tools, simulations and/or games. Although the teacher has overall control over the content, students can be relatively autonomous within the learning environment, and in some cases may be able to set their own goals for specific tasks. The teacher also provides opportunities for students to discuss, and reflect on, the findings from their investigative tasks. The teacher's role is thus largely that of tutor, facilitator or coach, in that s/he is available to provide advice and feedback and is responsible for [PhoebeMapActivitiesToTechnologies#Management/metacognitiveactivities metacognitive and management activities.]

In '''social-constructivist''' models, students work collaboratively to construct new ideas.

Constructivism is characterised by:

'''In learning:'''
 * Conceptual development through integration of ideas
 * Collaboration with other students
 * Ill-structured problems
 * Opportunities for reflection 
 * Ownership of the task, including some freedom to decide task goals

'''In teaching:'''
 * Providing interactive environments and appropriate challenges
 * Encouraging experimentation and the discovery of broad principles
 * Coaching and modelling thinking skills
 * Framing learning outcomes in meta-cognitive terms to encourage the development of autonomy

'''In assessment:'''
 * Assessing conceptual understanding (applied knowledge and skills)
 * Assessing extended performance
 * Assessing processes as well as outcomes
 * Crediting varieties of excellence
 * Promoting the development of self- and peer-evaluation skills

[wiki:ModelsConstructivist#ModelsofLearning:Constructivism Top] | [wiki:PhoebeApproachIntroduction About teaching approaches & techniques] | [wiki:PhoebePh2Contents Contents page]

=== Guidelines for planning a constructivist learning session ===
 * View the topic of the learning session from a holistic perspective.
 * Decide on a (collaborative) task that will enable students to construct their understanding of the topic.
 * Decide the timescale of the task.
 * Decide on the form of outcome, and on how it is to be stored and accessed if it will be used later on in the course.
 * Decide how to assess the process and outcomes.
 * Decide how you will provide the students with: 
   * Space and tools to perform the task (physical or online) 
   * Suggested resources 
   * Facilities for presenting, storing and retrieving outcomes
   * Support for forming groups and performing the task (if collaborative)

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=== Generic sequence of activities ===
+ denotes activities which take place concurrently.

|| || || '''1. Orientation''' ||
|| || Teacher: || Introduce the topic domain to the students. ||
|| || || '''2. Learning activity or activities''' ||
|| || Teacher: || Describe the task, and the way it will be assessed, to the students. ||
|| || Teacher & students: || Check students' understanding of the task. ||
|| || Teacher & students: || If this is a collaborative task, form groups and organise work (who does what).  ||
|| + || Students: || Perform task and create outcome. ||
|| + || Teacher: || Support students as necessary. ||
|| || || '''3. Assessment activity and/or reflection on the task''' ||
|| || Students: || Present outcomes. ||
|| || Students (& teacher) || Discuss and reflect on task, process and outcomes. ||
|| || Teacher: || Describe/explain the assessment activity ||
|| || Students: || Carry out the assessment activity.'' ||
|| || Teacher: || Provide feedback. ||
|| || || '''4. Feeding forward the newly constructed understanding''' [[BR]]''(may be integrated with preceding activities)'' ||
|| || Teacher & students:  || Continue discussion. ||
|| || Teacher & students:  || Save and keep outcomes for future use. ||

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=== Examples and case studies ===

 * [PopExamplesLADIE#ConstructingacollaborativewebbasedtimelineHistory Constructing a collaborative web-based timeline (History)]
 * [PopExamplesLADIE#Criticalthinkingandreflectiveskills Critical thinking and reflective skills]
 * [PopExamplesLADIE#CollectingandevaluatingresourcesDesignengineering Collecting and evaluating resources (Design Engineering)]
 * [http://phoebe-project.conted.ox.ac.uk/attachment/wiki/ExpFiles/AUTC%20Models%20from%20MoD4L.pdf?format=raw Social Work and Business Studies] (PDF format). These examples are represented using the notation devised by the [http://www.learningdesigns.uow.edu.au/project/index.htm Australian Universities' Teaching Committee project] on learning designs.

''We are still researching examples and case studies for this topic. If you would like to contribute any (whether from your own teaching or from other sources), please [mailto:phoebe@conted.ox.ac.uk contact us].''

[wiki:ModelsConstructivist#ModelsofLearning:Constructivism Top] | [wiki:PhoebeApproachIntroduction About teaching approaches & techniques] | [wiki:PhoebePh2Contents Contents page]

=== Further information ===
You can find a comprehensive set of links to readings and papers on all aspects of constructivism on [http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html Martin Ryder's pages] at the University of Colorado. 

The Theory into Practice database of educational theories includes a short, readable outline of [http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html Jerome Bruner's] blend of constructivism.

[wiki:ModelsConstructivist#ModelsofLearning:Constructivism Top] | [wiki:PhoebeApproachIntroduction About teaching approaches & techniques] | [wiki:PhoebePh2Contents Contents page]

''(With thanks to Isobel Falconer, Glasgow Caledonian University, who provided much of the content of this page.)''